Table of Contents

1 Abstract 
1.1 Transition 
1.2 Trend 
2 Introduction 
3 Moving with the times 
3.1 Exploration 
3.2 Advancements 
3.3 Education and Career 
3.4 Research 
3.4.1 Recycling 
3.4.2 Acid precipitation by microbes 
3.4.3 Fuel Cells 
3.4.4 Coal bed methane (CBM) 
4 Issues and Challenges 
4.1 Disposal of mining waste and related issues 
4.2 Cyanide spills, leaching and leaks 
4.3 Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) 
4.4 Submarine Tailings Disposal (STD)13 
4.5 Nuclear/Radioactive waste 
5 Looking Ahead 
6 Appendix A: Some of the potential blocks around the world 
7 Appendix B: Activists and Groups 
8 Appendix C: Links to sources indicated in the paper 
9 Appendix D: Additional Reference Source and Links 
 

Abstract

Traditionally, mining focused on extracting minerals economically and with a degree of safety considered practical. The focus was to increase the run-off-mine at lowered costs and the technological advancements cantered mostly on exploration techniques, automation and mining equipment. 
Advances in bulk transport and communications brought in radical changes and the emergence of multinational players. Intense competition and diminishing resources resulted in re-defining threshold values. 
The focus of the industry changed to a plane where economical extraction became a necessity to take care of other areas once considered unnecessary or given least importance.

1.1 Transition

Globalization and advancements in travel and communications brought in awareness to the public and environmental, economical and social issues emerged giving a different thrust to the mining industry. Laws kept updated to meet the new challenges and issues and enforcement became more rigid with the activists coming to the fore. Large scale operations brought in their own problems and resulting major disasters spread around
different parts of the world resulting from the mineral waste dumps, processing and inability to impound the containments made everyone wake up and size up the situation. Mining industry had to face cancellation of claims in Australia, face closures in Philippines and opposition elsewhere.
Economy was no longer the criteria as some of the local persons preferred tourism to mining revenues in different parts of the world.

1.2 Trend

It is with such a background and ground realities that the mining industry is moving forward and meeting the challenges. Results from explorations are encouraging from different parts of the globe like Mongolia, Canada, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Australia. Governments have shown interest in investment from mining industry in Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Papua New Guinea, Tanzania and others. Australia is encouraging students to take up mining as their career and new course in bio-tech engineering 
with subjects like bio-mining, bio-diesel and environmental rehabilitation indicate the awareness and preparedness of the industry to face the futures. The market trends show encouraging signs as the economy of China indicate, tin emerging again in the wake of mobile phones and microprocessors, platinum group metals in fuel cells. Research on varied subjects like “acid precipitation by microbes”, bio leaching, coal bed methane, and fuel cells are finding practical application and augers well for the future.



2 Introduction 

There is a perceptible shift in the approach to exploit a mineral body. Factors once considered outside the realm of actual mining, now influence in deciding a mining project. The economical extraction used to be the main criteria earlier. Awareness and advancements have changed that perspective. The awareness to the impact of mining is very widespread now and with possibilities to extract low yield deposits with very high 
ore to waste ratio with the arrival of large scale and advanced equipment and visualizing and modeling with the software packages in advance, the concept of planning has to necessarily include the extraction of the entire body, safe disposal of the mining and processing waste and also to maintain the ecological balance.

While more and more economically viable deposits are discovered around the globe, the impact of the legacy of old workings is being increasingly felt and the mining industry finds itself to concurrently tackle the issue of clean up and also plan the working with long term environmental impacts in future. 

The author has been tracking mining issues over the past few years; the primary source of information being the World Wide Web. Hyperlinks to the sources have been provided in the Appendix. While care has been taken to derive material from creditable web sources, the author cannot vouch for the exactness of the data and welcomes the reporting of any discrepancies/ deviations from the readers. 



3 Moving with the times 
3.1 Exploration 

Exploration is an ongoing process and is essential for the very survival of an industry particularly those like mining that depend on natural resources. The primary objective of any exploration program is to first establish adequate resources and later to continuously update the results during actual mining operations in addition to sourcing additional resources 

This can be either for survival, expansion or protection. Advancements in information technology have made data processing more and more accurate with visualizations and simulations possible like never before. It is possible to simulate the ore body almost in its entirety in three dimensions for the proper assessment and planning. Sampling and analysis no longer delay the geological assessment.

Joint ventures override financial constraints to explore major blocks and the practice is increasingly moving towards exchange of data and resources.
The potential for PGM, gold, iron ore, copper, nickel etc., augers well for the future of the mining industry as a result of exploration around the globe and investigations now on various stages. The exploration at Stephens Lake property is a pointer to this trend of pooling and sharing resources.1

Some of the potential blocks around the world are indicated in appendix A.

3.2 Advancements 

Threshold values keep changing with dwindling resources and with the dynamics of the market. Advancements in the development of mining equipment now make large scale excavation possible and reclamation and re-mining possibilities get a second look and attract serious consideration. The possibility of working a low yielding deposit with very high overburden/waste ratio is high with the phenomenal advances in the mining equipment. Even abandoned underground workings get a fresh appraisal for open pit working options. 

There are continuous improvements and upgrading of equipment, systems, components, maintenance options in all areas of mining and these find more and more integrated into existing systems. Some notable examples are the two piece tire assembly for heavy equipment which cuts downtime drastically, size of the excavators, portable jaw crushers, components like fluid couplings for complex drives, large capacity AC drives for trucks which can be put on trolley mode as well, on line analyzers making quality control and blending almost instantaneous, pipe conveyors to convey raw materials. etc.,

Software development is continuous to include more and more areas and now include almost all conceivable application as of now and is also custom developed for specific requirements. Data mining, visualization, simulations give an opportunity to foresee and accurately plan and with continuous fine tuning workings are planned and monitored like never before. Apart from the availability, it is also to be noted that the industry is alive to these developments and integrate into their activities. The skills and knowledge required in the mining industry has changed drastically in view of these developments and constant up gradation.. Education is also getting tailored to meet these requirements keeping abreast with the advancements.

3.3 Education and Career

The mining industry has woken up to the situation where a number of existing employees are due to retire and replacement has not been on par. This is because the number game is no longer valid but the skills and knowledge required has a quantum leap along with the technical advances in method of working, equipment, software and data processing and new issues and challenges that are to be met. Coal industry like in USA suddenly find that employment potential is much more than anticipated and attention towards education and training16 is focused. Similar attention is also given in Australia where new thrust is given by the Government to invite17 more students to take up mining. New courses focusing on current issues are introduced like environmental sciences, bio diesel, etc.  Edumine18 offers online professional development courses for mining and geo sciences with subjects and topics that are relevant for today’s mining industry. The mining industry has already vocational training in place, statutorily at both places, and the relevance is more pronounced than ever before in today’s changing scenario.

3.4 Research

3.4.1 Recycling

Recycling draws the attention of the industry like never before. The old dumps, and waste heaps get a second look and reclamation from these sometimes look more attractive to continue uneconomical mine and produce further waste dumps. Recycling for platinum group metals is already established, for instance from obsolete catalytic converters from automobiles and the new source is even more widespread. Recycling computer parts for gold is a new trend. The projections19 from US alone over the next few years appear mind boggling and a major source of the metal into the market. The current research is towards reduction of water20 in the coal sludge, recycling and reuse of the sediments. A plant in Cadiz separates coal sediments from clay and other contaminations and aims at a reduction of almost 50% volume and at the same time increasing burn ability.

3.4.2 Acid precipitation by microbes

The importance paid to bio leaching2 is reflected by the installation of a pilot plant at Chuqicamata mine, Chile. Bio leaching is expected to have significant potential in the future. The algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii3 reportedly cleans up by eating metal and research on the possibility of using this as one of the solutions for pollution related issues in the future is currently on. Bio process demonstration for gold-silver bearing sulfide concentrates is now in place at Hutti Gold Mines4, India. The largest biox plant5 is reportedly commissioned in Ghana.

3.4.3 Fuel Cells 

Platinum group metals are used as catalysts in fuel cells. After the auto industry, the consumption of PGM metals is expected to progressively increase in fuel cell applications. Research and development of fuel cell is taken up throughout the world and proto types are already in place. Platinum consumption would be on the increase concurrent with the developing technology.

3.4.4 Coal bed methane (CBM) 

Coal bed Methane Outreach Program (CMOP) 6 of the EPA is a voluntary program for reduction of methane emission from coal mining. Coal bed methane is generation is attributed to biological process through microbial action, thermal process at depth and also due to the pressure of saturated water in a coal seam. The seriousness with which coal bed methane is viewed is reflected by the announcement that eight nations joining hand for the capture of methane and to reduce greenhouse effects in a program called “Methane to Market Partnership”.7



4 Issues and Challenges 

Mining operations often commence in relatively isolated locations but the settlements for support services as well as mushrooming activities later on, grow to such an extent that often there is demand for shifting the original mining operations. This edging out gets pronounced when the infra structure built for the mining outgrow and shift its priorities.

The new awareness is bringing about more responsibility to mining. This is reflected by community preferring alternate fund generation to mining, to stop the mining altogether, and for responsible utilization of natural resources and tightening up safety measures like never before. Mine closure is an issue more complex than expanding or at times keeping status quo. In spite of advances made in technical knowledge and skills, combating old legacies is still a complex issue. It could be the mining itself, or the resolving of social aspects on account of stoppage or closure of existing mines. Environmental issues are getting more and more persistent. It is not necessarily the scale of the mining like mining for gems in Sri Lanka, cutting marble in Rajasthan, India or Bolivia’s’ tin mine.

Mining battles with nature and the environmental issues are getting more and more persistent. It could be the working itself, or resolving the social aspects on account of stopping mining operations already in place.

Environmental scientists in Tasmania have been conducting research on remediation and being in one of the mineralized zone, now feel that they can impart the knowledge and continue research on throwing their services open and becoming self sufficient. When a mining plan is drawn and when the projections show backfilling or getting the waste back to the mine and reclaim the land for original use, the costs arising on account of toxic wastes, containment and control of acid mine drainage etc., does not get the importance and visualization. 
Often this projection could make the project itself unviable due to the enormity of the issue. Often when the mine is abandoned or closed it is mostly on economical grounds and the legacy is left for the state to handle. How far this impact over generations tackled and quantified while preparing a project report is to be seen.

4.1 Disposal of mining waste and related issues

Disposing the waste rock either from the run off mine or the result of processing is one of the major issues facing the mining industry today. Sometimes as much as 97% of the mined material ends up as waste. Often the waste is kept in dumps, when in slurry forms in artificial ponds (dams), or discharging the tailings into the ocean bed at depth.. 

4.2 Cyanide spills, leaching and leaks

Often almost 97% of the run-off mine either directly or after processing end up as tailings depending on the ore body and concentration of metals. In heap leaching, tailings are piled into heaps are sprayed with cyanide and water for leeching out gold. This cheap process is very difficult to manage. Slurry which is formed when tailings are mixed with water, gets contaminated during processing with chemicals including cyanide. Tailing ponds impound the slurry. The stability of the ponds is mostly determined by the ground conditions, liner materials and quantity impounded. Any of these including heavy rains could impede the proper impounding and result in tear ups and release of the tailings into the environment. The damage caused often to the waterways is one of the most widespread issues on account of cyanide leaching. The disparity between the life of the mine and the life span of the damage, the legacy is passed on to future generations.. Cyanide persists in ground water for a very long time.

States like Montana view cyanide leeching8 with concern and statutorily prohibit new mining based on cyanide leeching.

4.3 Acid Mine Drainage (AMD)

AMD is defined as drainage that occurs as a result of sulphide oxidation in rock exposed to air and water. The drainage flows away from the source to the receiving environment. The adage “prevention is better than cure” is appropriate in the case of AMD. Efforts are on to predict AMD with comparisons, lab tests and modeling and are a continuous 
evolving process.

Control at source is the most effective way of dealing with AMD.

Present controls include: 
•segregation of waste and blending, 
•putting covers and capping the waste dump, 
•through bactericides, 
•collection and treatment of contaminants and 
•bio-remediation. 

Simulated weather conditions to study the formation of AMD and take remedial steps are also undertaken. Controlling AMD is very complex and requires perpetual treatment. Mine managements view the issue seriously and take appropriate action to minimize the effects of AMD like Sulliven Mine9 in Kimberley. When the mine planned closure, the company developed and implemented a closure plan, which resulted in improvements to the quality of air and water. But long term measures still prove to be a challenge.

An example a large mining operation is Rossing Uranium10 which processes low grade ore. The tailing ponds of the mine are spread over an extent of 730 Hectares. Mine. The fluctuation of the market for uranium reportedly made the company think of closure.11. Initiatives include approach to the Canadian Government to overhaul the Environmental protection Act to make it mandatory for clean up. The clean up actually could create jobs and initiatives are to prevent further pollution making the polluter pay for the clean up.

4.4 Submarine Tailings Disposal (STD)13 

The impact of disposing the tailings deep into the ocean was not apparent when mining plans were prepared and approved as in Highlands Pacific in PNG. When the satellite pictures showed that one tailing disposal covered an area of three kilometers wide and the damage to aquatic life and coral reef became tangible, the seriousness came to the front. In Indonesia, a decision was taken to suspend the disposal of mining waste to the ocean. Serious environmental issues which made everyone sit up and note are the STD disposals to Buyat12 bay in Indonesia, Astralabe Bay, Lihir Island14 and OK Tedi 15river systems in PNG, 

4.5 Nuclear/Radioactive waste 

Containment of radioactive waste is always a complex issue. This is an issue which affects future generations and for a long time to come, Failure to contain has resulted in disasters around the globe. The seriousness is warranting specialized courses on this subject. Current plans for nuclear waste sites include Nevada, USA, Olympic Dam in Australia and Kyrgyzstan processing nuclear waste from Germany.



5 Looking Ahead 

The results from various exploration programs being undertaken in various parts of the globe forecast a bright outlook for the industry. The ongoing programs are too numerous to mention here but some important and potential findings are in Sudbury basin in Canada, Kimberlite in Botswana, Cas Berardi project, Canada, Mibango in Tanzania, and Great Dyke in Zimbabwe .

Market trends also are on the upbeat generally with tin cornering the limelight in the wake of demand for mobile phones and microprocessors. Uranium and Platinum group metals show a tendency to maintain demand outstripping supply. 
Governments have come out with investor friendly policy like in India, Kenya, Mongolia, and elsewhere. India and China are also looking inwards for value addition in respect of coal and iron ore. Some of the closed or defunct mines are getting revived like in Tasmania, Saindak in Pakistan, taconite in Minnesota, USA, Choquelimple mine in Chile, and copper mines in Zambia. Discussions on revival of mines in the Democratic Republic of Congo are going on.

Inner Mongolia clears business licenses for Joint Ventures and the exploration programs are on track., Vietnam Republic look for Russian investment in mining sector, Philippines look for investments from China for the mining sector and Tasmanian mining industry is upbeat with market trends.

The mining industry is alive to the realities and appears to grow with the times.



AendiA:
Some of the potential blocks around the world